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Original title in Czech: TeleinformatikaFEKTAbbreviation: PP-TLIAcad. year: 2014/2015
Programme: Electrical Engineering and Communication
Length of Study: 4 years
Profile
The aim of the studies is to prepare top-class scientific personalities that will be able to provide solution to challenging problems of science and technology in the field of information technologies in telecommunications. Another aim is to teach graduates the methods of scientific work, to make their knowledge of higher mathematics and physics more profound, and to furnish students with theoretical, experimental and practical knowledge from the field of teleinformatics.
Key learning outcomes
Graduates of doctoral studies in the field of teleinformatics are fit to work as scientific and research workers in the development, design and operation departments of research and development institutes, and telecommunications companies, where they can make full creative use of their knowledge and skills. The graduate is capable of solving independently sophisticated problems of science and technology in the field of teleinformatics. In view of the scope of his theoretical education the graduate is capable of adapting to practice requirements in both fundamental and applied research.
Occupational profiles of graduates with examples
This field of study focuses on the science education of doctoral students with profound theoretical foundations in converging communication and in formation technologies. The main part of the study includes course in theoretical informatics and telecommunication technology. In the area of teleinformatics the student has much knowledge of communication and information technologies, data transmissions and their security, inclusive of using and designing the related software. He is well versed in operating systems, computer languages, database systems, distributed applications and the like. He can cope with the algorithmization of tasks on a high level and can propose new technological solutions of telecommunication devices, information systems and support services.
Guarantor
prof. Ing. Zdeněk Smékal, CSc.
Issued topics of Doctoral Study Program
Standardized methods based on CPB analysis, Fourier transform and statistical data processing are currently used in the area of identification and measurement of noise. However, modern methods of audio signal processing and data mining offer a much wider range of exploration of characteristics of sounds and their effect on humans and the environment. The aim of the thesis is the application of modern methods of audio signal analysis and data mining in acoustic measurement and in sound analysis in the area of measuring noise of industrial equipment and environmental noise.
Supervisor: Schimmel Jiří, doc. Ing., Ph.D.
The studying of the properties of sound intensity probe, which is also used for localization of sound source, will be first step. The research of the adaptive noise cancellation (ANC) algorithm used in two-channel speech enhancement systems will be the next step. The purpose is to design and test a new adaptive algorithm, which partially utilizing the directional properties of the sound intensity probe for speech quality enhancement.
Supervisor: Sysel Petr, doc. Ing., Ph.D.
The goal of the dissertation thesis is the design of an effective steganography method which will be practically unrevealable by current detection methods and which will be sufficiently robust to withstand the modifications produced by a censor.
Supervisor: Burda Karel, doc. Ing., CSc.
Multitone modulations are today frequently used modulation techniques, e.g. in ADSL, VDSL, PLC, WLAN IEEE 802.11a, g, n technologies. In all the above mentioned systems the known and well described modulation DMT (Discrete MultiTone) or OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) is used. The goal will be to optimize existing and to design, simulate, implement and test new alternative modulation techniques based on multicarrier modulation.
Supervisor: Šilhavý Pavel, doc. Ing., Ph.D.
The thesis is focused on analysis of data communication and data secure for controlling and supervision in energy network. The dissertation will be solve the optimatization data networks with limited resources. It will also be necessary to make a critical evaluation of applicable algorithms for secure communication in these networks.
Supervisor: Mišurec Jiří, prof. Ing., CSc.
Today we are witnesses of massive deployment of fourth generation mobile networks. The scope of the Ph.D. thesis is the study and consecutive analysis of control procedures (signalling) both in experimental network at UTKO and also in real mobile networks, the research of causes of unsuccessful or long lasting procedures and the design of techniques for mobile network optimization.
Supervisor: Novotný Vít, doc. Ing., Ph.D.
The thesis will be focused on analyses of speech signal with wrong pronunciation and on automatic detection of wrong pronunciation in speech. An analysis of particular pronunciation defects and their influence on speech parameters will be part of the work.
The topic is focused on broadband data communication systems over metallic lines, based on technologies using multi-carrier modulation technique (DMT, OFDM,...), like xDSL and Power Line Communication (PLC) systems.
Supervisor: Zeman Václav, doc. Ing., Ph.D.
The research will deal with an analysis of the influence of networking devices and transmission paths on the communication latency. The goal will be to identify the sources of latency and for these sources estimate the communication latency. Latency prediction is used in a number of networking applications, such as load balancing among the servers in the Internet.
Supervisor: Komosný Dan, prof. Ing., Ph.D.
Current mobile networks have to already face a significant increase of specific type of data traffic generated by automated devices and systems without human interaction. This type of mobile data will be even more dominant in future generations of mobile networks such as 4G or 5G networks. For this reason, it is necessary to conduct a thorough analysis of all the specifics and requirements in order to efficiently operate these D2D services in mobile networks. Therefore, it is highly needed to propose a methodology for the optimal parameters setting in mobile network to provide a required quality of service on the one hand and to avoid the overprovisioning on the other. At the same time, also the energy efficiency of these connections has to be taken into account, since most terminal devices have limited power supplies.
Supervisor: Hošek Jiří, doc. Ing., Ph.D.
A distributed system consists of partial elements which commutate over a computer network. An example of such distributed systems are applications for data sharing across users and on-line multilayer games. The student will study the current communication protocols and their application in distributed systems. After the initial study, the student will propose possible solutions for solving the current communication issues in distributed systems.
The need to complete the missing segment of an audio signal is an interesting task with the practical use (restoration of recordings, dropouts in VoIP calls, etc.). Current methods are capable of high quality interpolation of signals that are stationary in the vicinity of the missing section and have harmonic character. The study would focus on improving these methods by advanced signal processing approaches. Psyhcoacoustic viewpoint of the problem should be covered as well.
Supervisor: Rajmic Pavel, prof. Mgr., Ph.D.
The aim of the dissertation is to propose a method based on genetic programming, which will be able to automatically optimize a selected group of problems in a short time when compared to the current methods. Currently, there are plenty of problems in many areas of industry (health, transport, security, energy, etc.), where exponential or even factorial growth of the state space expansion occures for possible solutions. At the same time, only a small sub-group of the search space gives correct semantic meaning. In this field, special methods of genetic programming seems very promising. The task is to utilize theory of genetic programming for design of algorithms and methods, which can automatically solve complex problems in the specified area and to show the competitive advantage of the proposed solution on a real-world problem.
Supervisor: Burget Radim, prof. Ing., Ph.D.
The work is focused on the design of A/D and D/A converters working in the current mode. The aim is to design a suitable structure of number-current and current-number converters without internal current-voltage and voltage-current conversions with respect to enhancing the bandwidth in comparison with converters working in the voltage mode. Part of the work is also the design and analysis of current-mode antialiasing filters. The design will start from unconventional circuit element structures such as current conveyors (CCI, CCII, CCIII) with simple or floating output, current feedback amplifiers (CFA) or transconductance amplifiers (OTA, BOTA, DBTA). Requirements to be met by the candidate: the knowledge of circuit theory and simulation programs (MicroCap, PSpice).
Supervisor: Lattenberg Ivo, doc. Ing., Ph.D.
Current data networks become more and more complex and cumbersome for both design and management due to the increasing demands for universality, high performance, efficiency, reliability and security. The scope of the Ph.D. thesis is the research of current development trends in the field, design and verification of new approaches to modern data network solutions for both current and near future humankind communication needs.
The scope of the Ph.D. thesis is the analysis of current state and the prediction of service data flow profile progress in modern mobile networks, both in current and in future ones. The goal of the research will be the analysis of subscriber service profiles and getting pieces of information from it. The mobile network performance evaluation from the perspective of user application data flows will be another partial topic of the thesis.
Telematic systems are particularly common in transport. Research into telematic systems based on the Internet protocol will be focused on the design of sophisticated, i.e. well-considered, formally well-developed and complicated methods that use IP systems in various areas. Surveillance and protection systems, systems of paying the fare, information systems and interactive applications, etc. are supposed in particular. Localization by GPS, vehicle diagnostics, and vehicle monitoring on ortho-maps in real situations are in the focus. Sophisticated telematic systems will be software simulated, optimized and subsequently hardware realized in the form of functional specimens. Communication between two cars without a driver intervention, collision avoidance, information transmission about traffic from the places cars left are expected. A highly accurate navigation system based on Galileo system (GNSS) for controlling functional blocks of cars are considered.
Supervisor: Škorpil Vladislav, doc. Ing., CSc.
The thesis is focused on research of novel realizations of frequency filters, oscillators, synthetic inductors, etc. The aim is to design a low-voltage and low-power applications based on functional blocks employing minimal number of transistors that work in frequency range tens of MHz. The workability of proposed circuits will be proved by SPICE simulations and/or via experiments.
Supervisor: Herencsár Norbert, doc. Ing., Ph.D.
The thesis is focused on research of novel analogue amplifiers that are controlled digitally. Thesis should be focused on DACA (Digitally Adjustable Current Amplifier) and LNVGA (Low-Noise Variable Gain Amplifier) circuits especially. First goal of this work is the check of real features of these elements and the design and analysis of alternative circuits or analogous structures. Second goal of this thesis is the design of novel filtering structures, oscillators or other circuits employing these new active elements or also suitable active elements that were already described in literature. The workability of designed solutions will be confirmed by simulations and also partly by experimental measurements.
Supervisor: Jeřábek Jan, doc. Ing., Ph.D.
The dissertation deals with the design of linear circuits designated for analog signal processing. For the sake of the design of these function blocks the approach of using a chosen type of active element, to which a feedback represented by passive network is connected, is not used. Instead of that the design is made using direct synthesis approach, where it is not fully possible to define the active and passive part of the function block. The aims of the dissertation is to design and verify the low-voltage and low-power structures analogue linear functional blocks of minimal configuration using MOS transistors and their corresponding small-signal model.
Supervisor: Koton Jaroslav, prof. Ing., Ph.D.
The work is focused on measurement, simulation and compensation of chromatic dispersion (CD) and polarization mode dispersion (PMD) in single-mode optical fibers. Higher bitrates use narrow pulses close to each other and dispersion causes their spreading. Causes more distortion and therefore it is a limiting factor for high-speed transmission systems. The most used methods for chromatic dispersion compensation are compensations with dispersion-compensating fiber (DCF), fiber Bragg grating (FBG) or higher-order mode fiber (HOM). Since polarization mode dispersion is quite random phenomenon, it is difficult to eliminate. Nevertheless, there are some methods how to mitigate the effect of PMD. One of the possibilities is to use FEC (forward error correction) coding, wavelengths redundancy in WDM (wavelength division multiplexing) networks or other optical and electrical compensation methods.
Supervisor: Filka Miloslav, prof. Ing., CSc.
Communication techniques providing emergency calls have to locate the caller in cases when they are not allowed or able to provide it themselves. The current issue of the voice transmission based on the IP protocol is that the location of the caller is not estimated with the required accuracy. The student will deal with an analysis of the current approaches of VoIP users' location. Using the gained knowledge, possible solutions to improve the VoIP users' location will be proposed.
The dissertation will focus on the development of methods for the registration of image data obtained by tomography. Proposed methods will be focused on the suppression of motion artifacts which appear during scanning of images of biological tissues. The issue involves the measurement of image data or use of image databases, processing by statistical methods and creation of mathematical models of the registration. The prerequisite is an interest and ability to perform analysis, knowledge of programming and monitoring trends in the given field.
Supervisor: Mikulka Jan, doc. Ing., Ph.D.
The work is focused on the feature analysis of current-mode electronic frequency filters. The aim is to design algoritmizable methods that lead to finding features of filters generally defined by the schematic. It will be necessary to evaluate the available feature ranges, e.g. quality, pass-band current transfer, dynamic range within a defined supply voltage, sensitivity, etc. In the case of finding the quality range, the point is to find the extremes of a multi-variable non-linear function. Mathematical tools (e.g. Maple or MathCAD) will first be used for this purpose; afterwards the algorithm itself will be designed. Requirements to be met by the candidate: algorithm thinking, the knowledge of computer programming and circuit theory.
The work is focused on the design, simulation and realization of distributed fiber-optic systems. These systems use as a sensor conventional single-mode telecommunication fiber, multimode fiber, plastic POF (Plastic Optical Fiber) fiber, microstructure fiber, or other special types of fibers. By using of scattering phenomena (Raman scattering, Brillouin scattering, Rayleigh scattering), eventually by changes the parameters of the optical signal (changes in intensity, phase, polarization, etc.) it is possible to obtain information about the temperature, vibrations and other physical quantities along the optical fiber.
Current sub-micron technologies besides the standard design of integrated circuits also enabled to design circuit of non-integer, i.e. fractional order, to which the attention also starts to focus significantly and sometimes are even labeled as the 21st century circuits. Generally, the passive elements featuring fractional order impedance can be approximated by an RC ladder circuit, which is not economic. Another way of fractional order circuit design is the use of structures with distributed parameters (RC-EDP). The aim of this dissertation is to use the RC-EDP to synthesize function blocks that compared to standard solutions will show improved or completely new characteristics that have not been investigated yet.
The thesis is focused on research of new fully-differential and single-ended analogue structures with minimum transistor number. The goal is to design solutions (frequency filters, oscillators, etc.) with high-frequency operational frequencies in band over 100 MHz. The workability of designed solutions will be confirmed by simulations and/or by experimental measurements.
The thesis is focused on research of novel structures of chemical current conveyors and their utilization as sensors in biomedical systems. The aim is to design novel structures of chemical current conveyors of first-, second-, third-generation or with voltage differencing inputs and their utilization in measurement systems for sensing basic biomedical quantities.
The work will be focused on analysis of the current error control systems in wired and wireless transmission systems and design of alternative approaches using LDPC (Low-Density Parity-Check) codes. The goal will be mainly to utilize new codes and approaches. Today the CRC code and the RS-code with interleaving are often used. Based on this groundwork the new approaches to solving these systems will be introduced. Individual approaches will be tested in simulations and practical realizations.
The focus of the thesis is to analyse the properties and the means of preparation of the nonperiodical optical waveguiding and resonant structures made in the fibre waveguides and based on the variation of refractive index and geometry in the cross section of the optical fibres. The thesis will utilise the present mask based fibre grating exposition systems and show the design and verification of the necessary modifications of to allow for the exposition of the longitudinal guiding and resonant structures. Forming the structures will be experimentally shown and acquired features compared to the features of the perpendicular Bragg gratings. The design model for forming the elements of the desired functionality is expected to be composed.
The goal of Ph.D. thesis is the research of current methods for mobile network performance assessment, their critical evaluation from the point of view of how difficult and costly the measurements are, and the design of new methods that utilize data obtained by data flow analysis from common subscribers. The design of new key performance indicators that reflects current demands on mobile networks and the design of algorithms how to calculate them are additional goals of the thesis
The study would focus mainly on novel and modern methods of spectral analysis in real time, with applications such as the diagnosis of faults in meteriálech (for instance, a crack in the airplane wing).
Recently, systems that use personal computers are increasingly used in the area of measurement of the characteristics of audio devices. These systems allow compensation of characteristics of the interface used to convert between analog and digital domain. These systems are also begin to apply modern methods for the analysis of audio signals. The aim of this study is to compare these methods in terms of accuracy of the results and propose optimization methods for measuring characteristics of audio devices and software systems in real time.
The perceptual methods of pick-up and reproduction of sound are recently used in the area of spatial sound processing. Those methods do not attempt to analyze and reconstruct the physical sound field, but only auditory perception. These methods include e.g. the ambisonisc and SIRR (Spatial Impulse Response Rendering). The aim of the thesis is research of these methods and their practical aspects. The goal is to find algorithms for modifying the sound field with regard to fidelity, computational requirements, etc., and also exploring the use of these methods for audio signal auralization.
The vulnerability of the IEEE 802.11, attacks on the security methods and the methods for its effectiveness. Wireless network security issues expected standards IEEE 802.11. A detailed introduction to these standards, describe the various types of wireless security, including their properties and the subsequent theoretical analysis. The implementation of the attacks on the various methods of modern security algorithms, emphasis will be placed on the identification of weaknesses of 802.11 protocols. On the basis of the findings will be designed and tested security more effective. Attention will be paid to the security quality of service QoS in 802.11 networks. The network will be subject to examination by appropriate programs and simulators (Opnet Modeler, NS2). Will also be examined according to modern services (IP phones, the transmission of video, voice, multimedia) to delay and to be performed, including an overall analysis to the QoS optimization.
The dissertation will focus on the development of methods of image data obtained by magnetic resonance imaging of small animal models focusing on the impact of nanomaterials. The analysis will focus on the resolution of tissues and their changes with the use of multiple image contrasts. Problems comprises measuring image data optionally use image database, the processing of statistical methods and mathematical models for data analysis. The prerequisite is an interest and ability to perform analysis, knowledge of programming and monitoring trends in the given field.
Supervisor: Bartušek Karel, prof. Ing., DrSc.
The dissertation will focus on the development of methods for segmentation of image data obtained by magnetic resonance imaging of biological tissues. Proposed method will be focused on the resolution of tissues and their changes with use of multiple image contrasts. Problems comprises measuring image data optionally use image database, the processing of statistical methods and mathematical models for data analysis. The prerequisite is an interest and ability to perform analysis, knowledge of programming and monitoring trends in the given field.
Analysis and modeling systems and power line for narrow band data communication vial power line. This is used for telemetrics and control systems in energeetics. The main common area is Smart Home, Smart Grid a remote data acquisition. The main topics is transfer functions, topoology power grid, noise modeling and so on.
In nowadays localization systems, the ultrawideband wireless technologies, which using channels with the width more than 500 MHz are widely used. The objectives of the Ph.D. studies will be research on the new solutions for precise time synchronization between the receiving devices in order to achieve the high precision in distance ranging tasks. The Ph.D. student will propose a new mathematical and simulation model, which will be evaluated in real scenarios.
Supervisor: Šimek Milan, Ing., Ph.D.
The theme is focused on processing of static, dynamic or three-dimensional images produced by different medical acquisition techniques, namely the output of the sonographic examination, body slices acquisition using the magnetic resonance etc. The goal is to improve properties of single images, their segmentation, 2D object recognition, quantification of different object parameters, their dynamic or spatial analysis, or eventual 3D model reconstruction. The main result of the work will be a proposal of a novel method being utilizable for solving of concrete diagnostic problems in cooperation with doctors.
Supervisor: Říha Kamil, prof. Ing., Ph.D.
The theme is focused on the research of novel methods for analysis of incomplete spatial information captured in digital images. These source data can be represented by temporal or spatial sequences eventually by a single image whereas the analysis should result from a given scene geometry.
The thesis is focused on research of novel types of functional blocks with voltage differencing input and their utilization in frequency filters, oscillators, synthetic inductors, etc. The aim is to design novel types of functional blocks with voltage differencing input which allow electronical tuning of current or voltage gains between terminals. The workability of proposed circuits will be proved by SPICE simulations and/or via experiments.
The aim of the study is to optimize the routing principles. The architecture of network element with priority routing will be designed. An original procedure will be proposed for modelling this problematic mathematically and also for implementing the mathematical model. The software simulation of a system that can be used to control the switching field designed for switching data units shall be extended with hardware implementation, e.g. via programmable logic fields of development system FPGA. The knowledge obtained will be generalized and related to the theory of high-speed network elements. The MATLAB program and Simulink and the VHDL and Visual C++ language in particular are expected to be used in software simulation.
The thesis is focused on research and optimization of analog circuit structures (frequency filters, oscillators, synthetic inductors, etc.) only on transistor level. The aim is to design a low-voltage and low-power applications by using of influences of transistor parasitics that work in frequency range tens of MHz. The workability of proposed circuits will be proved by SPICE simulations and/or via experiments.
Overlay network is formed by the nodes of belonging to one or more separate networks. Examples are peer-to-peer networks and distributed systems. The student will analyse the current approaches to the organization of the nodes into the overlay networks. Based on the information gained through the study, the student will propose modifications to improve the efficiency of virtual networks with a focus on the typical applications.
Modern computational systems (CPU, GPU, APU, and DSP) can make use of a number of parallel computation units. The application of parallelization has now been standardized through OpenCL, which allows parallel programming of heterogeneous systems. At the same time, simulation environments (such as Matlab and Simulink) are also provided with the possibility of parallel programming. To begin with, it is necessary to make an analysis of the possibilities offered by the current standards for process parallelization that can be applied to the basic and advanced methods of digital signal processing. The aim of the dissertation is to propose algorithms for digital signal processing methods that will exploit the possibilities of parallel programming both in the course of simulation and in the final implementation for the target computational system.
Supervisor: Balík Miroslav, Ing., Ph.D.
The student will deal with research into geolocation of Internet nodes. The focus will be on the client-independent location when the node being located is not aware of this process. The currently used approaches are based on location databases (passive) and measurement of communication parameters (active). The work will include an analysis of the current solutions and a proposal of improvements of the location of Internet nodes.
Together with the continuous development of communication technologies and terminal devices, also the end-user’s demands on the quality of service in mobile networks are increasing. The video streaming and social networks will be dominant applications in the future generation of mobile networks. Due to very specific aspects of these services, it is necessary to come up with an optimal setting of key network parameters in order to achieve maximum customer satisfaction. For this purpose, in-depth study on the relations between network variables on the one hand and the subjective quality perception on the other has to be carried out. Therefore, it will be necessary to design and then evaluate the methodology for the assessment and prediction of overall user’s satisfaction with mobile data services.
The objective of the Ph.D. study is to research and design new methods for optimization of the reliability and robustness of wireless ultrawideband communication systems. The representative of such system is IEEE 802.15.4a, which will be analyzed within the research. The student will propose the new mathematical models, which lead to the optimized communication error. The proposed model will be validated in real scenarios.
Current routing policies in IP networks negatively influence the communication parameters. The research will deal with a study of the routing influence on the connections between computers. The goal will be a proposal of possible methods for the minimization of such negative influences and their evaluation using simulations or measurements in IP networks.
The topic is focused on the description of cryptographic modules and on the research of the influence of side channels on the security of these modules.
The work will be focused on research into softswitch incorporation into converged NGN networks. One of the goals will to link softswitches with the existing SS7 TDM network through the IP network. The goal will be to design, implement and test the protocol solution. Based on this groundwork the new approaches to solving these signalling systems will be introduced. Individual approaches will be tested in practical realizations.
The fundamental frequency is the one of the important parameters of the speech signal. Its estimation is due to the nonstationary of speech signal quite difficult. Empirical mode decomposition is an advanced method for analyzing nonstationary signals based on signal decomposition into intrinsic mode functions adapted to the base signal content. The instantaneous frequency, among other parameters, can be determine using the Hilbert transform. The content of the dissertation research will be research of the basic method of detection frequency tone and its comparison with other known methods.
Active network elements now use for the management of queues and control of switching a series of powerful algorithms. The task is to implement selected algorithms of queues management into the development system equipped with an FPGA card, instrument performance and develop a custom algorithm that addresses the development of the management of queues in the respect of the standard of marking used for QoS solutions. The resolution will be the knowledge of languages C and VHDL, Matlab, or Verilog.
The analysis of the influence of time-variant discrete system on processed signal in a trice of the step modification of the system parameters. The time-variant systems based on the segmentation of the input signal, the segment processing, and the output signal reconstruction from segments. The systems with the variable length of segment and overlap amount. The effective methods of the assessment of statistic signal parameters. The automatic adaptation of the length of segment to current statistical features of processed signal.
Neurological diseases of patients are manifested in different ways. Speech utterances ill patients are significantly different from the utterances of a healthy persons. The characteristic function is one of the ways to describe the statistical properties of pathological speech and the appropriately selected properties make predictions of disease or preventing its occurrence. The aim of the dissertation is to select the optimal statistical properties of the speech signal using the characteristic function and perform automatic classification of speech pathology and speech dysfunction.
Supervisor: Smékal Zdeněk, prof. Ing., CSc.
Apriori known signal characteristics can be used to accelerate the measurements of MRI scans. The study would focus on the use of these properties and their inherited techniques.
The topic aims at the research into utilization of resistive-capacitive elements with distributed parameters (RC-EDP) in electrical circuits especially with modern active elements (conveyors, current amplifiers etc.). In particular it will include design of so-called fractal circuits which have non-integer order of transfer or immittance function and which can be implemented by RC-EDP. It is expected proposing new frequency filters, oscillators, synthetic immittance elements and other circuits. The aim will be improving properties compared to existing circuits (reducing dimensions, increasing response speed, decreasing power consumption etc.) and moreover obtaining characteristics that cannot be realized by classical elements or only at the cost of using complex structures.
Supervisor: Kubánek David, doc. Ing., Ph.D.
This recent area of research is based on the assumption that the observed signal is sparse with respect to a basis (i.e. it has only several non-zero coefficients). This assumption is usually met in the case of real images, but also locally in audio, so sparsity-based modern methods (compressed sensing, inpainting, denoising, deblurring and others) are advantageously used.